what is Ethics?

Ethics: Often used interchangeably with morality, ethics typically refers to the systematic philosophical study of right and wrong behaviour. It involves constructing and evaluating arguments about what ought to be done in a moral sense

what is Morality?

Morality: Refers to the principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behaviour. Morality can be seen as a set of standards or rules that people adhere to, often derived from societal norms, religion, or cultural practices.

Key Ethical Theories 

1. Utilitarianism 

• Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory in ethics, meaning that it evaluates actions based on their outcomes. The central tenet of utilitarianism is that the moral worth of an action is determined by its ability to maximize overall happiness or well-being. The primary aim is to increase pleasure and minimize pain, leading to the greatest net benefit for society. 

• The theory was initially articulated by Jeremy Bentham, who introduced the principle of "the greatest happiness for the greatest number". He proposed that happiness could be quantified, and actions should be evaluated based on how much pleasure or pain they generate. John Stuart Mill later refined this theory, introducing a distinction between higher (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures, arguing that the quality of pleasures should also be taken into account when evaluating actions. 

Types of Utilitarianism: 

• Act Utilitarianism: This type focuses on evaluating each individual action based on whether it produces the greatest amount of happiness. The goal is to consider the specific situation and decide on the course of action that leads to the maximum happiness. For example, a doctor may decide to administer a treatment to one patient that may cause discomfort but ultimately saves their life, maximizing overall happiness. 

• Rule Utilitarianism: In contrast to act utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism focuses on following rules that, in general, tend to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number. The emphasis here is on developing rules that maximize overall well-being and applying them consistently. For example, the rule "do not lie" is followed because, in general, honesty tends to create more trust and happiness in society than deception. 

2. Deontological Ethics 

• Deontological ethics, developed primarily by Immanuel Kant, focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions, regardless of their consequences. Unlike utilitarianism, deontology is concerned not with the outcomes of actions, but with the duties, rules, and moral principles that govern behavior. According to deontological ethics, actions are morally obligatory if they align with certain moral laws or duties. 

• Kant's categorical imperative is the central ethical principle in deontology. It demands that individuals act according to maxims (rules or principles) that they believe could be universally applied. In other words, one should only act in ways that they could rationally will everyone else to act in similar situations. This principle asserts that individuals must treat others as ends in themselves, not merely as means to an end.

Types of Deontological Ethics: 

• Kantian Ethics: Emphasizes that duties arise from rationality and the ability to universalize moral principles. The focus is on respecting human autonomy and ensuring that individuals are treated with dignity, regardless of the consequences. 

• Contractualism: Proposes that moral rules arise from the agreements or contracts among rational agents. According to philosophers like John Rawls and T.M. Scanlon, ethical behavior emerges from principles that all rational individuals could agree upon as part of a social contract. 

3. Virtue Ethics 

• Virtue ethics, rooted in the philosophy of Aristotle, emphasizes moral character and the cultivation of virtuous traits over strict adherence to rules or consequences. The goal of virtue ethics is to help individuals live fulfilling, meaningful lives by developing virtues-positive character traits that lead to personal flourishing (known as eudaimonia). 

• The highest human good in virtue ethics is eudaimonia, often translated as "flourishing" or "living well." According to Aristotle, a virtuous person is one who acts in accordance with reason and cultivates a balanced character, avoiding extremes of excess or deficiency. For example, courage lies between the extremes of recklessness (excess) and cowardice (deficiency). 

Types of Virtue Ethics: 

• Eudaimonistic Virtue Ethics: This approach links virtues directly to the concept of eudaimonia, suggesting that living a virtuous life is essential for human flourishing. Virtues like honesty, courage, and generosity enable individuals to lead fulfilling lives. -

• Agent-Based Virtue Ethics: Focuses on the moral judgments about an individual's character, emphasizing the kinds of people they are or the character traits they are developing. It asks, "What kind of person should I be?" rather than "What should I do?

   

4. Ethical Relativism 

• Ethical relativism challenges the idea that there are universal moral principles that apply to all people, regardless of culture or individual beliefs. Instead, it asserts that moral judgments and practices are shaped by cultural, social, or individual contexts. What is considered morally right or wrong can vary significantly from one culture or individual to another. 

• Cultural Relativism: The idea that moral codes and practices are valid only within specific cultural contexts. Each culture has its own set of moral standards, and there is no objective basis for judging one culture's practices as superior to another's. 

• Individual Relativism (Subjectivism): This variant posits that moral judgments are based on individual preferences and perspectives. What is right for one person may not be right for another, and there is no universal moral truth. 

Illustration 1: Female genital mutilation (FGM) is considered a cultural rite in some societies, but widely condemned in others. From a relativistic standpoint, the morality of FGM would depend on the cultural context, and one culture should not impose its values on another regarding such practices. 

Illustration 2: The practice of eating meat is viewed differently across cultures. Some cultures see it as a normal and ethical part of life, while others, especially those influenced by ethical or religious reasons, may practice vegetarianism due to concerns about animal rights. Ethical relativism would argue that the morality of eating meat is subjective and based on cultural beliefs or individual preferences.